What Is Meant By Language Varieties?

What Is Meant By Language Varieties? Language is defined as a systematic use of sounds, gestures or symbols for communication. It has a complex system where the rules are not clearly stated and is productive as an infinite number of sentences can be produced once the rules are learned. Varieties of Language The expressions and uses of a language varies in many ways. The diagram below illustrates these language varieties : Language Varieties Participants Geographical Registers Social Historical Medium Topics Setting 1. Historical i) Old English it was descended from the languages spoken by the Germanic tribes when they invaded England around 500 AD. The various dialects spoken by these invaders formed the early English language. ii) Middle English was the result of the French influence of the Normans and lasted from 1100-1500 AD iii) Modern English is broken into early Modern English and late Modern English.The former began around the time of playwright, William Shakespeare. Late Modern English occurred around 1800 during British conquest and colonisation of other parts of the world. 2. Geographical English may be the native language of England but due to various reasons such as: colonisation, migration, globalisation, cultural, economic, etc, it had spread to other countries around the world. However, the language used in these different countries developed independently from the original language due to influences by local languages. These influences cause, among other things, the differences in the pronunciation, thus producing their distinctive accent. Some forms of these are: American English Australian English Indian English In certain regions,there are different versions of the same language called dialects. These dialects have different grammar, vocabulary and accent. Eg : Cantonese ( dialect of Mandarin); Aboriginal English (Australia). 3. Social It refers to the use of the language in terms of the social class or identity. Eg: The upper class society in Britain tend to use Received Pronunciation (RP) also known as Queens English or BBC English while others tend to use Cockney English. 4. Registers These are variations caused by : i) Setting It has a large influence in the application of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Different industries such as Legal, IT, Food Beverage, Technical or Hotel Service has their own grammar or technical jargon. Eg : Lawyers would use formal or legal terms in the execution of their papers or court hearings whereas an electrician needs to understand technical terms to issue instructions or to describe repairs. ii) Participants The age, sex, group identity and roles will influence the language used. Age A different variety of language is used when talking to children, eg. Peekaboo than when talking to a peer. Sex Females tend to be more hyperbolic or expressive in their speech while males speech is more subdued. Roles The role we play in our day-to-day contact with others affect the way we speak. Eg ; as a spouse, colleague, parent, teacher, etc. iii) Topic Different subjects have its own specialized set of vocabulary and grammar usage. Eg : A disc jockey and a priest would use different sets of the same language to convey their messages. iv) Medium It can be visual or auditory. Visual (reading and writing) In reading, there are different degrees of formality and also more vocabulary than in listening. In writing, grammatical rules need to be applied and time is needed to interpret the written word Auditory (speaking and listening) Having good listening skills certainly helps one to pick up and improve on speaking skills, esp. in intonations, grammar or vocabulary. In speech, words are usually accompanied by body gestures to convey the message. Words spoken rarely needs to be interpreted, unlike written words. Conclusion As the usage of English language expands across the globe, influences from local cultures, language or from new discoveries in Science and Technology will evolve the language, making it more varied than ever. References: wapedia.mobi/en/Variety_(linguistics Categories: Linguistics | Varieties of English www.icalweb.com/wiki/Varieties_of_English An Introduction to International Varieties of English by L Bauer Related articles Q2. What is Communicative Competency? Communicative competence refers to a language users grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology, etc as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.(Dell Hymes,1966) The desired outcome is the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals, not the ability to use the language exactly as a native speaker does. This outcome depends on : 1) Appropriateness in Speech Other than having knowledge of the words and rules of the language (linguistics), one must also learn not just to say what one means but to use the right words to suit the situation. The words used in to communicate with a friend may deem to be inappropriate when speaking to your headmaster. Eg : Hi! Buddy, have a jolly good day. Good Morning, Mr. Brown Speech can be classified into : Casual/Intimate Speech It is easy going and natural, mainly occurring between family, friends or people whom you are comfortable with. It may contain many omitted forms of grammar and missing words . Eg : Want tea? I go home now. You coming ?. ii) Formal Speech It is more careful but also natural. Proper word sentences and grammar rules are observed and may be used in office or court settings between employer-employee, lawyer-client, etc. iii) Ceremonial Speech It tends to be more unnatural where the rhythm and intonation are quite different from normal speech. 2) Appropriateness in Writing Competency in writing, such as knowledge of grammatical rules, spelling, etc cannot be overlooked. However, different situations dictate different styles of writing. i) Telegrams Where the main message or the gist of it has to be communicated in the shortest time, correct grammar form used may be inappropriate. ii) Essays It is formal writing where grammatical rules, semantics, spelling, etc has to be observed. iii) Poetry The poetic style of writing may not follow the grammatical rules of the language. iv) Legal Document The terms and language used have to be very formal and expressively written. 3) Appropriateness in Setting Being competent in using the language appropriately in a social setting will enable you to be understood and accepted. The setting is influenced by: i) Participant The social status, sex and age will affect the style of speech . Eg: speech use to communicate with a child is different from communicating with an adult. ii) Topic Speech used depend on the subject. Eg; words used for a recipe discussion will include ingredients, method, measures while IT skills will include computer,download,printer. In conclusion, where English is taught as a foreign or second language, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language acquisition. This is unlike previous views in which linguistics competence was commonly given top priority. References: En.wikipedia.org/wiki/communicative competence www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/communicative competence www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/goal.htm Section B Q1 What are the various stages of L1 acquisition? How does this knowledge help us in L2 teaching? Language is commonly defined as any means of conveying or communicating ideas and language acquisition is learning how to communicate these ideas. It is the process by which people acquire the ability to perceive, produce and apply the words to communicate. First language(L1), which is also known as native language or mother tongue is acquired naturally due to ones needs to communicate in order to fulfil his wants. Acquisition Of First Language It occurs in stages from birth. Stage 1 : Pre Speech Babies respond to speech around them more keenly than to other sounds and from birth, will learn to pay attention and distinguish the following in their environment before they speak : i) speech phonemes of the language, eg the speech sound of t and d in bat and bad; ii) intonation the rising and falling intonations iii) rhythm of speech phonological or system of speech patterns in the language used. Stage 2 : Babbling Babies begin to babble from around 3 to 4 months old. It is basically speech sounds with rising and falling intonations. These indiscriminate utterances (eg dadadaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ or nananaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) do not make sense to the listener but the baby appears to understand the meaning of it. Stage 3 : One word (Holophrastic) stage At about ten months, infants start to utter their first recognizable words although: i) pronunciations may be inaccurate eg : eep for sleep ii) vocalized words may not correlate with words in the language eg meh for cat or ta for duck iii) certain words may be distorted eg goggy for doggie iv) reduplication of words eg da-da,na-na Stage 4 : Two word stage Babies are able to say mini sentences with simple semantic links from 18 months onwards. Eg : cat no (there is no cat ) At this stage, their ability to express is not as advanced as an adult. The semantic use of words are either too broad or too narrow. He may call any round item : ball or only himself and no one else boy However, these underextensions and overextensions develop and change over time. Stage 5 Multi word Stage (Telegraphic Stage): By two years, most children are able to speak in sentences of several words. These telegraphic sentence structures are made up of lexical morphemes which are grammatically incomplete. Eg No eat instead of I wont eat. Stage 6 Normal speech: By about 3 years of age, they would have acquired grammatical and functional structures of words to be able to conduct normal speech. Second language (L2) is any language learned after the first language. Unlike L1, it is normally acquired in order to integrate with the environment.and is achieved through active learning and motivation. As L2 learners follows the same stages of acquisition as L1 learners, it is beneficial if we understand and apply these stages because it will help us to educate L2 learners more effectively. Acquisition of Second Language The stages that L2 learners go through are: Stage 1 : Silent Stage In an environment which is similar to the Pre-Speech Stage of L1, they hear and learn to recognize the distinctive sounds of words and pronunciations. During this silent stage, they may not speak but can respond various ways such as pointing to an object, person or gesturing with a yes and no response. Stage 2 : Early Speech During this stage, utterances of first words (holophrastic) gradually make way to speaking a few simple words and then, simple phrases of the language. Mispronunciations are common during this stage and sentences are telegraphic in nature. Stage 3 : Speech Emergence Learners try to form sentences and will make mistakes in the grammatical structuring of the sentences. By making use of the Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), the development of the learner can be assessed by measuring the morphemes uttered. Eg Early In Between Later You eat? You eating? Are you eating? From the early stage of 2 morphemes, it develops to 3 and then finally 4 morphemes where the grammar and syntax are in order. Stage 4 Language Proficiency Learners are capable of using complex sentences and apply the acquired language to a greater extent. They can opine, discuss and most importantly, begin to think in the second language. Teachers Role In all the above stages, the teacher takes the important role of the mother where she encourages, repeats and reinforces the language. By motivating and making the learners feel secure in a conducive environment, learners will be more willing and confident to acquire a second language.

Lifespan Development and Personality Paper Essay

Adolescence, also known as â€Å"teenage years† is a time of dramatic change. This phase of life marks a developmental period that follows childhood and comes before adulthood. Adolescence is closely associated with puberty, which is also considered as a developmental milestone, particularly in the western countries. Puberty refers to the period of adolescence when a person becomes capable of reproduction (Carpenter, S. & Huffman, K., 2008). In this paper, I will discuss the various factors that affect the physical, cognitive, social, moral, and personality development of adolescents. Adolescence is a time of rapid physical growth which is illustrated by the drastic growth spurt in the height, weight and skeletal muscles. In this phase, rapid development of tests, scrotim and penis develops in adolescent boys whereas development of ovaries, uterus, and vagina occurs in adolescent girls. I believe some of the factors that lead to this rapid physical development can be held responsible to both hereditary and environmental influences. Hereditary influences are also referred to as â€Å"inherited† qualities which are passed on from the parents to the offspring. Therefore, these are also known as â€Å"nature† influences. On the contrary, environmental influences are those experiences that one gets from their surrounding environment as one grows and matures. Such influences are also referred to as â€Å"nurture†. Genetics play an important role in the physical development of an adolescent. For instance, if the parents of a child are extremely hairy, then there is a high probability that the child will also become hairy earlier in life. Also, if both the parents are tall, then there is a high probability that the child will also become taller in their puberty years. Moreover, environment also plays a major role in one’s physical development. Environment encompasses family surroundings, media influences, culture and so on. For instance, one of the Asian countries requires girls to wear metal bands around their necks from early age so that when they get into the puberty years, they can develop long and slender necks. This is so because it is considered beautiful in their culture for girls to have long and slender necks; it is a part of their culture. In addition, environmental and cultural factors such as television, internet, and media amongst others can play a major role to influence de velopment in adolescence. Adolescence is also a time of changes occurring in the development of cognition. Piaget developed a theory of cognitive development which emphasize on the four stages that children must go through. The four stages of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are as follows: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stage. Since the focus of this paper is adolescence, I would discuss the formal operational stage in depth as it is developed in ages of 11 and up. Formal Operational stage can be characterized by abstract thinking, logical thought and hypothetical reasoning. In Piaget’s Formal operational stage, the children acquire the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. In other words, children can ask themselves â€Å"what if† type of hypothetical questions, which further illustrates their ability to create and test concepts. In addition, Formal operational thinking also allows the adolescent to construct a well-reasoned argument based on hypothetical concepts and logical processes (Carpenter & Huffman, 2008). In addition to attaining the ability to think abstractly, children in this phase have very egocentric way of thinking. In other words, they cannot differentiate between what they are thinking and what others are thinking. This egocentric thought may be characterized into two ways: personal fable and imaginative audience. The factors that influence cognitive development in adolescents can be held responsible to both genetics and environmental influences. In terms of hereditary influences, if either of the two parents (biological) of the child is suffering from mental health disorder such as schizophrenia, then it is very likely that the offspring will also develop this disorder. Hence, this will in turn disrupt the development of cognitive processes such as formal operational stage in the child. Moreover, environment can also play a vital role in the cognitive development of an adolescent. For instance, if a child has grown up in a happy and a healthy environment where parents practice an authoritative parenting style then the child is more likely to reach the formal operational stage earlier and successfully in the adolescence years. Also, such an authoritative style of parenting facilitates good decision making in children. In other words, when given a choice between healthy and unhealthy behaviors such as having unprotected sex, driving experimenting with drugs and alcohol; these children are less likely to take such decisions and act on it. This is because they have  attained the formal operational stage and hence, gained the ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and logically about their decisions. Social development is studied by reflecting on the significance of attachment in ones life. Adolescent’s tend to develop strong attachments with people who are not their primary caregivers, particularly peers, teachers, social clubs, sports clubs and so on. Adolescence is a time when individuals tend to spend more time with peers than the primary caregivers. Not only that, adolescence is also a time when children group together to form cliques, intimate relationships and experiment with sexuality. The factor that affects social development is attachment. Vast amount of research has been done on the relationship between the type of attachment style formed in the younger years and the relationships formed later in the adolescent and adult life. Researchers found that an average, adolescents’ perceptions of the quality of the parent-child relationship declined consistently and moderately between age 11 and age 14. Furthermore, conflicts with parents increased and this was particularly true for girls than boys (McGue et. al, 2005). Morality can be explained as the ability to differentiate between right and wrong. Moral development also begins to develop in the adolescent years. Kohlberg, one of the most influential researchers in psychology has developed a model of moral development. His stages of development include Pre-conventional level, Conventional level and Post- conventional level. Since the focus of our paper is on adolescence, I will investigate conventional level in detail as it is developed in this age. Conventional level consist of stage 3 (good child orientation) and 4(law-and-order orientation). In Stage 3, the primary moral concern is with being nice and gaining approval. In stage 4, the individual takes into account a larger perspective-societal laws. Stage 4 individuals understand that if everyone violated laws, even with good intentions, there would be chaos. Thus, doing one’s duty and respecting law and order are highly valued (Carpenter, S. &  Huffman, K., 2008). Personality development is studied mainly with Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of development. Erikson’s theory consists of eight stages of psychosocial development; these theories are in the following order:Stage 1 – Trust vs. MistrustStage 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtStage 3 – Initiative vs. GuiltStage 4 – Industry vs. InferiorityStage 5 – Identity vs. Confusion (Adolescence: ages 12-20)Stage 6 – Intimacy vs. IsolationStage 7 – Generativity vs. StagnationStage 8 – Integrity vs. DespairThe stage 5 of Erikson’s theory reflects the adolescence period. Erikson claims that during this period, the individual questions and searches for their own identity and their role in society. Furthermore, he mentioned that those individuals who do not overcome the identity crisis do not form a stable identity, indulge into delinquent acts and behaviors, and have difficulty in forming and maintaining close relationships in life. Klimstra et. al (2009) examined adolescent personality maturation on the Big Five personality trait model and found that agreeableness and Emotional Stability increased during adolescence. In addition, mixed evidence was found for the increase in traits such as Extraversion and Openness. Furthermore, it was found that in terms of gender differences in the timing of adolescent personality maturation, girls tend to mature earlier than boys. Adolescence is a stage of development which occurs before adulthood and after childhood. In this stage of development, a drastic growth spurts in height, weight, and skeletal muscles. This paper mainly focused on the various aspects of the human development in adolescence. The various factors affecting physical, cognitive, social, moral, and personality development of adolescents were also discussed in this paper. References Carpenter, S. & Huffman, K. (2008). Visualizing Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Klimstra, T., Hale, W., Raaijmakers, Q., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2009, April). Maturation of personality in adolescence.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 898-912. Retrieved April 19, 2009, doi:10.1037/a0014746McGue, M., Elkins, I., Walden, B., & Iacono, W. (2005, November). Perceptions of the Parent-Adolescent Relationship: A Longitudinal Investigation. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 971-984. Retrieved April 19, 2009, doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.971

Looking for Alaska - Miles Eulogy - 931 Words

Looking For Alaska Book Report – Eulogy Hello everyone. I would like to thank you all for coming to honor our friend, Alaska Young. I am Miles Halter, known to most as Pudge. I transferred to Culver Creek Boarding School from Florida to ‘seek a Great Perhaps’, to leave behind the insignificant things I was doing, to seek something that was perhaps greater. I collect people’s dying words and â€Å"I go to seek a Great Perhaps†, were the last words of Francois Rabelais, but unlike him, I did not want to wait to die to start seeking it. This school has given me very many of my firsts: first friend, first dose of mischief and the first and last girl. Alaska was the most enigmatic and mysterious person I have ever met. Every element of her†¦show more content†¦It all just felt so terribly unfair, all of it, the inarguable injustice of loving someone who might have loved you back, but can not due to deadness. I loved Alaska because she showed me both my labyrinth and my Great Perhaps – she had proved to me that it was worth it to leave my minor life for grander maybes, and now she is gone and with her my faith in perhaps. Alaska is still teaching me a lesson; the only way out of the labyrinth is to forgive. I wish Alaska had realized this too before it had to end this way. Her mother forgave her; just as I am sure Alaska forgives all of us now. You see â€Å"we are all going, nothing can last, not even the earth itself.† (John Green, Looking For Alaska) The Buddha said that suffering was caused by desire, and that the cessation of desire meant the cessation of suffering. So when you stopped wishing things would not fall apart, you would stop suffering when they did. So Alaska, I have some last words for you, Thomas Edison’s, â€Å"It’s very beautiful over there.† I do not know where there is, but I believe it is somewhere and I hope it is beautiful. After all of this I will learn no more last words because I know so many, but I will never knowShow MoreRelatedJohn green Essay example6063 Words   |  25 Pagesvideos. He won the 2006  Printz Award  for his debut novel,  Looking for Alaska,  and reached number one on a  New York Times Best Seller list  with  The Fault in Our Stars  in January 2012. Green was born in Indianapolis to Mike and Sydney Green  and his family moved three weeks after he was born  to  Orlando, Florida.  He attended Lake Highland Preparatory School  and  Indian Springs School  (which he later used as the main setting for  Looking for Alaska),  a boarding and day school outside of  Birmingham, Alabama  and

Analysis of Greek Tragedy Using the Aristotilean Model Essay

Greek tragedies, written in ancient times, are still a standard for tragedies written today. Contrary to diminishing in value over time, these tragedies have become cherished pieces of work in the sophisticated literate culture of today. However, one can not delve into these precious works of beautiful literary verse without first having background knowledge of the context they were written, and of the structure they follow. There are several terms, as well as an analysis of tragedies by Aristotle, a philosopher who experienced them firsthand. By knowing the structural basis of tragic works before reading them, one is able to better understand them and appreciate them more fully for the prized trophies of classic literature they are.†¦show more content†¦He also added background scenery. Also in development came the tone of seriousness, and the changing in rhythm to that more closely related to regular conversation speech. Aristotle, along with the history of tragedies, included an analysis of the subjects. He states the tragedy always deals with lofty subjects, characters greater than ourselves. They accomplish this all in a grand style of verse. The events in tragedies also generally all take place in a single day, regardless of how long they took in real life. All the previous descriptions of tragedy fall under the seven parts of tragedy Aristotle describes. First of all, tragedy involves mimesis, that is, it is imitation of real events. This gives credibility to the work and helps captivate the audience. Secondly, it is serious. This helps distinguish it from comedy. Tragedies also include action that is complete and with magnitude. Language in tragedies utilizes of rhythm and harmony. The rhythm and harmony should not be used throughout, however i.e. some bits are spoken while others are sung. Tragedies should be performed, not narrated, which is the context in which one must read and understand them. Finally, a tragedy should arouse emotions of pity and fear, while accomplishing catharsis, a purification or purging of these emotions. Structurally, Aristotle lists six component parts of which all tragedies must consist, and nothing else. These include the spectacle, which is the overall