Upon examining issues of mind and thought, the que Essay Example For Students

Upon examining issues of mind and thought, the que Essay stions of artificial intelligence and its capabilities become important considerations for answering the ultimate question of what thought truly is. Computerized calculation is one of the few events that is somewhat analogous to human cognitive thought, so the extension of this current technology to more advanced future applications makes it a very interesting testing area for questions into consciousness. If one concludes that the advancement from cash registers to present day computers is a step closer to human thought, then we must concede that progressing technology will bring us closer and perhaps to the very point of true cognitive skills. The dilemma left to us philosophers and scientists is to determine when a machine has reached the point of thought, or at least to create a rough guideline. A.M. Turing proposed a test to solve this problem. Named, appropriately enough, the Turing test, it contains a controversial method of testing called the imitation game. The idea is to pu t one man and one woman in two rooms and have them questioned by an interrogator in a third room. The man would try to answer questions in a way which would suggest he is a woman. The woman attempts to answer in a way to reveal the truth of the matter. If the man fools the interrogator, it is said that he can think like a woman, or, at the very least, mimic a womans responses. This game can also be played with a computer in the male slot, trying to convince the interrogator that it is human. It would follow reason that if a computer could pass this test, it could think like a human, or at least mimic one. Perhaps the abilities showcased in the test alone would not be sufficient, but Daniel C. Dennett claims that the assumption Turing was prepared to make was that nothing could possibly pass the Turing test by winning the Imitation Game without being able to perform indefinitely many other clearly intelligent actions (Dennett 93). One often cited criticism of this notion is the idea of mimicry. Imagine a program that stored an almost infinite amount of information regarding sentences and grammar and was able to spit out contextualy appropriate sentences to a wide variety of inquiries. The computer has no knowledge of what the information means; it is acting much as a parrot does. Luckily for Turing, there is no shortage of responses for this claim. First of all, as Douglas Hofstadter points outs, the number of sentences youd need to store to be able to respond in a normal way to all possible sentences in a conversation is astronomical, really unimaginable (Hofstadter 92). The computer would also have to contain a complex microprocessor to keep up with conversation in a timely and manageable fashion. It would have to be so advanced indeed that such a microprocessor might be considered a small scale brain, sorting through symbols and their meanings to form contextually valid responses. Accordingly, if such a machine existed, it would pass the Turing test and vali date the method of testing at the same time. If a machine was capable of mastering the context-sensitive language we use, it may very well have a claim to true thought. At the very least, the computer would surpass mimicry and be labeled a simulation. Human thought is so complicated and demanding that any device that attempts to duplicate it with any success would have to be a highly sensitive simulation. Any machine that passes the Turing test must have a rudimentary knowledge of the information it is using and therefore is more than parrot . Assuming this is true, we must then ask hard questions about the value of simulation. The critical claim is that any simulation is just a simulation and not a real example of what it is simulating. Hofstadter finds this fallacious, as do I. First, any simulation can reasonable defined in this context as the recreation of a natural event by an agent other than nature. This view brings up the idea of levels in simulation. A good example is Denne tts simulated hurricane in Brainstorms. From the programmers vantage point, the God spot, of course the simulation can be easily identified as such. On the level of the simulation, however, no such preordained order can be seen. Perhaps if we all had the vantage point of nature, we would see the entire physical universe as a large simulation created by natural forces. Ultimately, it would seem unfair to discriminate between two like events on the basis of what agent set them into motion. We are still left with the largest concern, however. What does the Imitation Game really prove? As far as I can tell, the Imitation Game proves nothing at all, yet it does not have to. As pointed out as the beginning of this investigation, the job of the philosopher/scientist is to create a guideline for judging the relative intelligence of machines. Some critics say that the Imitation Game played with humans lends no insight into how the male thinks. They say that the test will never prove the man can think like a woman. Even if this is true, it does not invalidate the test as applied to machines. The cognitive abilities of men and women are so close in nature that the test may indeed lend no valuable information. With a machine, however, the cognitive differences from a human can be seen easily. The Turing test may not lay down a definite line for thought, but it is valuable for relative evaluations. For example, if one machine performs almost perfectly on the test, and another performs badly, one could conclude that the first machine is closer to human thought than its failing counterpart. What the test cannot do, however, it tell us how close the better machine is to thought. The identity of the computer as conscious cannot be proved. Kishan Ballal points out that we intuitively feel that personal identity is the paradigm for all other judgments of identity, even though personal identity cannot be justified through purely rational means (Ballal 86). The sad truth is that a t present there is no way to establish conscious identity other than asking the entity and hope it doesnt lie. G.W.F. Hegel supports this theory of conscious identity, commenting that the self-contained and self-sufficient reality which is at once aware of being actual in the form of consciousness and presents itself to itself, is Spirit (Hegel 637). In the Hegelian view, the computer is the only one with the correct insight to determine if it is conscious. Could this possibly suggest that the only accurate Turing test is one a computer runs on itself? Through self-inspection, or self-interrogation if you will, the computer may be able to draw conclusions on its own condition. Now while Hegel never saw the computer in any form, even he realized the limits of a test like Turings. From Hegels point of view, there is not even a test to determine if a human is thinking or merely simulating conscious existence. Personal conscious identity is an assumption. Like other elements which form our bedrock of assumptions, Ballal says, personal identity is without proof (Ballal 86). Normally, this is not a problem. The knowledge of self-existence is clearly a priori analytic. It is a self-supporting truth, exempt from the attacks of epistemological skeptics. We can then deduce that any similar being that shares the basic physiological structure probably shares the same conscious existence. These assumptions are rarely challenged except by the highly fallacious solipsism of young children. When we examine a computer, however, the same assumptions cannot be applied. Therefore, the Turing test can only go so far, for the assumptions it rests on are small in number. We must keep in mind that the Turing test is only a tool, not a proof. The test was not designed to tell if machines can think. After all, Turing himself says that question is too meaningless to deserve discussion (Turing 57). The test is a yardstick with no predetermined end. There is no prefect score for the test; the most current machine defines the best result. As machines continue to advance, the best result will constantly grow better, stopping only when technology advances to its peak. Thus the Turning test can only answer the question Can machines think? in two ways: No if technology stops advancing, or We dont know yet if it has not stopped. Ultimately, the Turing test does have flaws and limitations, but that should not sharply downgrade its usefulness as a tool for measuring a computers cognitive abilities. As science grows in scope, more tests may be devised to gauge these abilities, but for current use, the Turing test clearly accomplishes what it was set out to do. Perhaps it does not offer a comprehensive proof, but it does lend insight into areas of science which were previously .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 , .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .postImageUrl , .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 , .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:hover , .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:visited , .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:active { border:0!important; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:active , .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9 .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc8bc8b85f9c8e27d373396939bce1ed9:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Why I Want to Be a Doctor Essay We will write a custom essay on Upon examining issues of mind and thought, the que specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now

Slavery And The American Bigot Essays - Slavery, Physiocrats

Slavery And The American Bigot Essays - Slavery, Physiocrats Slavery And The American Bigot Slavery and the American Bigot We Americans are interesting people and we have an interesting history. Slavery is part of that history. From time to time we forget just how much of part slavery plays in our history. I was reminded of that once again by the news story on the family reunion of the Thomas Jefferson family. The family of Thomas Jefferson has both white branches and black branches. Thomas Jefferson looms large in the history of our country. The humor comes not from the fact that his decedents are feuding. Who of us dont have family feuds? The humor comes from the attitudes adopted by the two different branches of this same family. Sadly one of the branches has a bigoted point of view. To me a bigot is simply a person who says there is one and only one way to look at a thing. Actually the bigot says a bit more than that. They say there is only one right way of looking at a thing. What makes that narrow is the word one. What makes it bigoted is the word right. Of course the religious bigot would say there is only one godly way of looking at a thing or an issue. The problem with looking at a thing or an issue from one single point of view is that by so doing only the simplest of things can be understood. Most things and most issues are not simple. Imagine looking at a three dimensional object from a single point of view. If we look at the front of our house we can not see the back of it with out changing our point of view. In fact if we only see our house that way we do not even realize that there is a back yard. To us from this point of view the back yard does not exist. Objects and lifes problems are too complex to be grasped from a single point of view. To restrict yourself to a single point of view dooms you to a lack of understanding. To ask others to share this single minded view is to cause bigotry. Understanding Thomas Jeffersons family tree can best be accomplished by acknowledging Sally Hemming.

Pronouncing Spanish Vowels

Pronouncing Spanish Vowels English speakers generally find the pronunciation of Spanish vowels fairly easy. Close approximations of all their sounds exist in English, and, with the exception of the E and the sometimes silent U, each of the vowels has basically one sound. The main thing to keep in mind is that in Spanish the vowels sounds are generally more distinct than they are in English. In English, any vowel can be represented by whats known as the schwa, an unstressed vowel sound such as the a in about, the ai in mountain, and the u in pablum. But in Spanish, such an indistinct sound isnt used. Although, as in most languages, the sounds of the vowels can vary slightly with the letters before and after them, in general the sound remains the same regardless of the word its in. Pronouncing the 5 Vowels First, the more or less invariable sounds: A is pronounced similarly to the a in father or the o in loft. Examples: madre, ambos, mapa. There are some speakers who sometimes pronounce the a something halfway between the a in father and the a in mat, but in most areas the first sound given is standard. See also the lesson on pronouncing the . I is pronounced similarly to the ee in feet and the e in me, although usually a little briefer. Examples: finca, timbre, mi. This letter is covered in more detail in the lesson on pronouncing the i. O is pronounced like the oa in boat or the o in bone, although usually a little briefer. Example: telà ©fono, amo, foco. See the lesson on pronouncing the o for more information. Now, the two vowels whose sound can change: E is generally pronounced like the e in met when it is at the beginning or within a word. It is pronounced similarly to the Canadian eh, kind of a shortened version of the à © in the English cafà ©, when it is at the end of the word. Sometimes it can be somewhere between those two sounds. Its not quite the sound of the English letter A, which if pronounced slowly often has an ee sound at the end, but closer to the e of met. Keep in mind that even when its at the end of the word, in a sentence it may sound more like the e of met. For example, in a phrase such as de vez en cuando, each e has approximately the same sound. Examples: cafà ©, compadre, embarcar, enero. See also the lesson on pronouncing the e. U is generally pronounced like the oo in boot or the u in tune. Do not pronounced it like the u in uniform. Examples: universo, reunià ³n, unidos. In the combinations gui and gue, as well as after q, the u is silent. Examples: guà ­a, guerra, quizs. If the u should be pronounce d between a g and i or e, an umlaut (also called a dieresis) is placed over it. Examples: vergà ¼enza, lingà ¼ista. This letter is covered in more detail in the lesson on pronouncing the u. Diphthongs and Triphthongs As in English, two or three vowels in Spanish can blend together to form a sound. The sound is basically the sound of the two or three vowels rapidly pronounced. For example, the u when followed by an a, e, i or o ends up sounding something like the w in water. Examples: cuaderno, cuerpo, cuota. The ai combination sounds something like the sound of eye. Examples: hay, airear. The i when followed by an a, e or u sounds kind of like the y in yellow.: hierba, bien, siete. And other combinations are possible as well: miau, Uruguay, caudillo. Pronouncing Y Generally, the y is pronounced the same as it would be if it were an i, as part of a diphthong. Examples: rey, soy, yacer. Some words that are derived from English and have a y at the end often retain the English pronunciation. For example, in popular songs you may hear words such as sexy and phrases such as oh baby. This letter is covered in more detail in the lesson on pronouncing the y.

Major Educational Issues in Further Education Essay

Major Educational Issues in Further Education - Essay Example All these issues are current concern to further education. Further Education has, therefore, become not only a national but also an international movement in view of its widespread global application. From among all above mentioned issues of further education, more important one appears to be specially the context of retention and achievement - its ever dynamic enhancement and persistent maintenance of higher standards. This is not possible without pupil-teachers -- at City & Guilds Certificate on Further Education Teaching Stage 2 - perfecting their teaching-learning skills. Two questions arise while writing about this matter: According to Learning and Skills Council (LSC), overall level of retention and achievement generally varies between 66 to 87 per cent among youth of 16 to 19 years (Government of United Kingdom, LSC) after due training. What is more important here is maintaining a consistent performance on the higher side of teaching and learning through dynamic and skilful efforts towards an excellent retention and achievement levels. How it is to be done S. Wallace has an interesting and revealing perspective in this matter. This author writes quite analytically: For a student teacher, or a teacher at the beginning of his or her career, it is usually (and understandably) the case that the focus of his or her anxieties, and therefore his or her planning, is upon the performance of teaching rather than upon the achievement of learning. I use the word 'performance' here advisedly, because the inexperienced or student teacher tends to envisage a lesson as a time to be filled by his or her own activity. They have to be 'teaching' all the time - which can mistakenly be taken to mean doing all the talking, making themselves the constant focus of the class, having to fill any potential silence with words. This, ironically, may mean the students have less opportunity to learn and that the teacher has no time to focus on whether they are doing so. If we remember, however, that the primary objective is about students' learning and that this, after all, is what all the teaching is for, we can begin to adjust our focus and to recognise that the careful pl anning, implementation and recording of assessment are central to what the lesson is about. It's not just about teaching; it's about learning. The teaching is only a means to that end (Wallace 64). Retention and achievement are clearly related to teaching and learning skills and maintaining quantitative alongwith qualitative levels of excellence through further education, continued and periodic updating of skills, and use of every possible tool for obtaining information, knowledge, experience and continuous self-assessment. How to impart information and knowledge is

Pros and cons to open a small business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pros and cons to open a small business - Essay Example This discussion illuminates the many advantages and disadvantages of opening a small business then briefly discusses the merits involved in the purchase of an existing business as opposed to starting one from the ground up. For a person that embodies the true entrepreneurial spirit, the chief goal and appeal of opening a small business is to create something novel, not simply in managing someone else’s conception. Because of this, beginning a business of one’s own construct is an appealing notion (Helfand, 2007). Operating one’s own business can be advantageous in many ways. First, and probably foremost is that a person can be their own boss. They are therefore able to make their own decisions and set their own hours. Nobody admonishes the owner for being late or taking an extra day’s vacation. No one tells the boss where to be and when to be there. The owner of a small business answers to no one besides the customer and even this is a choice. Unreasonable clients can be fired. The owner is not involved in petty organizational politics. No one is trying to undermine your authority or accomplishments so as to ‘climb the corporate ladder’ quicker. The owner of a s mall business is and always will be at the top. There is no ceiling on earnings potential to the owner of a small business. It is the best way to realize the ‘American dream.’ The more the business succeeds, the more profit is made and the owner decides how to distribute the earnings. Gone are the days of working for a pre-determined salary knowing that efforts made were probably making money for invisible investors who didn’t have a clue about the business nor appreciated the tremendous sacrifices that allowed it to profit. The owner of a small business has the ability to develop particular skills and knowledge needed for the growth of that business instead of having to focus on only the constrained

What Is Meant By Language Varieties?

What Is Meant By Language Varieties? Language is defined as a systematic use of sounds, gestures or symbols for communication. It has a complex system where the rules are not clearly stated and is productive as an infinite number of sentences can be produced once the rules are learned. Varieties of Language The expressions and uses of a language varies in many ways. The diagram below illustrates these language varieties : Language Varieties Participants Geographical Registers Social Historical Medium Topics Setting 1. Historical i) Old English it was descended from the languages spoken by the Germanic tribes when they invaded England around 500 AD. The various dialects spoken by these invaders formed the early English language. ii) Middle English was the result of the French influence of the Normans and lasted from 1100-1500 AD iii) Modern English is broken into early Modern English and late Modern English.The former began around the time of playwright, William Shakespeare. Late Modern English occurred around 1800 during British conquest and colonisation of other parts of the world. 2. Geographical English may be the native language of England but due to various reasons such as: colonisation, migration, globalisation, cultural, economic, etc, it had spread to other countries around the world. However, the language used in these different countries developed independently from the original language due to influences by local languages. These influences cause, among other things, the differences in the pronunciation, thus producing their distinctive accent. Some forms of these are: American English Australian English Indian English In certain regions,there are different versions of the same language called dialects. These dialects have different grammar, vocabulary and accent. Eg : Cantonese ( dialect of Mandarin); Aboriginal English (Australia). 3. Social It refers to the use of the language in terms of the social class or identity. Eg: The upper class society in Britain tend to use Received Pronunciation (RP) also known as Queens English or BBC English while others tend to use Cockney English. 4. Registers These are variations caused by : i) Setting It has a large influence in the application of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Different industries such as Legal, IT, Food Beverage, Technical or Hotel Service has their own grammar or technical jargon. Eg : Lawyers would use formal or legal terms in the execution of their papers or court hearings whereas an electrician needs to understand technical terms to issue instructions or to describe repairs. ii) Participants The age, sex, group identity and roles will influence the language used. Age A different variety of language is used when talking to children, eg. Peekaboo than when talking to a peer. Sex Females tend to be more hyperbolic or expressive in their speech while males speech is more subdued. Roles The role we play in our day-to-day contact with others affect the way we speak. Eg ; as a spouse, colleague, parent, teacher, etc. iii) Topic Different subjects have its own specialized set of vocabulary and grammar usage. Eg : A disc jockey and a priest would use different sets of the same language to convey their messages. iv) Medium It can be visual or auditory. Visual (reading and writing) In reading, there are different degrees of formality and also more vocabulary than in listening. In writing, grammatical rules need to be applied and time is needed to interpret the written word Auditory (speaking and listening) Having good listening skills certainly helps one to pick up and improve on speaking skills, esp. in intonations, grammar or vocabulary. In speech, words are usually accompanied by body gestures to convey the message. Words spoken rarely needs to be interpreted, unlike written words. Conclusion As the usage of English language expands across the globe, influences from local cultures, language or from new discoveries in Science and Technology will evolve the language, making it more varied than ever. References: wapedia.mobi/en/Variety_(linguistics Categories: Linguistics | Varieties of English www.icalweb.com/wiki/Varieties_of_English An Introduction to International Varieties of English by L Bauer Related articles Q2. What is Communicative Competency? Communicative competence refers to a language users grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology, etc as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.(Dell Hymes,1966) The desired outcome is the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals, not the ability to use the language exactly as a native speaker does. This outcome depends on : 1) Appropriateness in Speech Other than having knowledge of the words and rules of the language (linguistics), one must also learn not just to say what one means but to use the right words to suit the situation. The words used in to communicate with a friend may deem to be inappropriate when speaking to your headmaster. Eg : Hi! Buddy, have a jolly good day. Good Morning, Mr. Brown Speech can be classified into : Casual/Intimate Speech It is easy going and natural, mainly occurring between family, friends or people whom you are comfortable with. It may contain many omitted forms of grammar and missing words . Eg : Want tea? I go home now. You coming ?. ii) Formal Speech It is more careful but also natural. Proper word sentences and grammar rules are observed and may be used in office or court settings between employer-employee, lawyer-client, etc. iii) Ceremonial Speech It tends to be more unnatural where the rhythm and intonation are quite different from normal speech. 2) Appropriateness in Writing Competency in writing, such as knowledge of grammatical rules, spelling, etc cannot be overlooked. However, different situations dictate different styles of writing. i) Telegrams Where the main message or the gist of it has to be communicated in the shortest time, correct grammar form used may be inappropriate. ii) Essays It is formal writing where grammatical rules, semantics, spelling, etc has to be observed. iii) Poetry The poetic style of writing may not follow the grammatical rules of the language. iv) Legal Document The terms and language used have to be very formal and expressively written. 3) Appropriateness in Setting Being competent in using the language appropriately in a social setting will enable you to be understood and accepted. The setting is influenced by: i) Participant The social status, sex and age will affect the style of speech . Eg: speech use to communicate with a child is different from communicating with an adult. ii) Topic Speech used depend on the subject. Eg; words used for a recipe discussion will include ingredients, method, measures while IT skills will include computer,download,printer. In conclusion, where English is taught as a foreign or second language, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language acquisition. This is unlike previous views in which linguistics competence was commonly given top priority. References: En.wikipedia.org/wiki/communicative competence www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/communicative competence www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/goal.htm Section B Q1 What are the various stages of L1 acquisition? How does this knowledge help us in L2 teaching? Language is commonly defined as any means of conveying or communicating ideas and language acquisition is learning how to communicate these ideas. It is the process by which people acquire the ability to perceive, produce and apply the words to communicate. First language(L1), which is also known as native language or mother tongue is acquired naturally due to ones needs to communicate in order to fulfil his wants. Acquisition Of First Language It occurs in stages from birth. Stage 1 : Pre Speech Babies respond to speech around them more keenly than to other sounds and from birth, will learn to pay attention and distinguish the following in their environment before they speak : i) speech phonemes of the language, eg the speech sound of t and d in bat and bad; ii) intonation the rising and falling intonations iii) rhythm of speech phonological or system of speech patterns in the language used. Stage 2 : Babbling Babies begin to babble from around 3 to 4 months old. It is basically speech sounds with rising and falling intonations. These indiscriminate utterances (eg dadadaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ or nananaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) do not make sense to the listener but the baby appears to understand the meaning of it. Stage 3 : One word (Holophrastic) stage At about ten months, infants start to utter their first recognizable words although: i) pronunciations may be inaccurate eg : eep for sleep ii) vocalized words may not correlate with words in the language eg meh for cat or ta for duck iii) certain words may be distorted eg goggy for doggie iv) reduplication of words eg da-da,na-na Stage 4 : Two word stage Babies are able to say mini sentences with simple semantic links from 18 months onwards. Eg : cat no (there is no cat ) At this stage, their ability to express is not as advanced as an adult. The semantic use of words are either too broad or too narrow. He may call any round item : ball or only himself and no one else boy However, these underextensions and overextensions develop and change over time. Stage 5 Multi word Stage (Telegraphic Stage): By two years, most children are able to speak in sentences of several words. These telegraphic sentence structures are made up of lexical morphemes which are grammatically incomplete. Eg No eat instead of I wont eat. Stage 6 Normal speech: By about 3 years of age, they would have acquired grammatical and functional structures of words to be able to conduct normal speech. Second language (L2) is any language learned after the first language. Unlike L1, it is normally acquired in order to integrate with the environment.and is achieved through active learning and motivation. As L2 learners follows the same stages of acquisition as L1 learners, it is beneficial if we understand and apply these stages because it will help us to educate L2 learners more effectively. Acquisition of Second Language The stages that L2 learners go through are: Stage 1 : Silent Stage In an environment which is similar to the Pre-Speech Stage of L1, they hear and learn to recognize the distinctive sounds of words and pronunciations. During this silent stage, they may not speak but can respond various ways such as pointing to an object, person or gesturing with a yes and no response. Stage 2 : Early Speech During this stage, utterances of first words (holophrastic) gradually make way to speaking a few simple words and then, simple phrases of the language. Mispronunciations are common during this stage and sentences are telegraphic in nature. Stage 3 : Speech Emergence Learners try to form sentences and will make mistakes in the grammatical structuring of the sentences. By making use of the Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), the development of the learner can be assessed by measuring the morphemes uttered. Eg Early In Between Later You eat? You eating? Are you eating? From the early stage of 2 morphemes, it develops to 3 and then finally 4 morphemes where the grammar and syntax are in order. Stage 4 Language Proficiency Learners are capable of using complex sentences and apply the acquired language to a greater extent. They can opine, discuss and most importantly, begin to think in the second language. Teachers Role In all the above stages, the teacher takes the important role of the mother where she encourages, repeats and reinforces the language. By motivating and making the learners feel secure in a conducive environment, learners will be more willing and confident to acquire a second language.

Lifespan Development and Personality Paper Essay

Adolescence, also known as â€Å"teenage years† is a time of dramatic change. This phase of life marks a developmental period that follows childhood and comes before adulthood. Adolescence is closely associated with puberty, which is also considered as a developmental milestone, particularly in the western countries. Puberty refers to the period of adolescence when a person becomes capable of reproduction (Carpenter, S. & Huffman, K., 2008). In this paper, I will discuss the various factors that affect the physical, cognitive, social, moral, and personality development of adolescents. Adolescence is a time of rapid physical growth which is illustrated by the drastic growth spurt in the height, weight and skeletal muscles. In this phase, rapid development of tests, scrotim and penis develops in adolescent boys whereas development of ovaries, uterus, and vagina occurs in adolescent girls. I believe some of the factors that lead to this rapid physical development can be held responsible to both hereditary and environmental influences. Hereditary influences are also referred to as â€Å"inherited† qualities which are passed on from the parents to the offspring. Therefore, these are also known as â€Å"nature† influences. On the contrary, environmental influences are those experiences that one gets from their surrounding environment as one grows and matures. Such influences are also referred to as â€Å"nurture†. Genetics play an important role in the physical development of an adolescent. For instance, if the parents of a child are extremely hairy, then there is a high probability that the child will also become hairy earlier in life. Also, if both the parents are tall, then there is a high probability that the child will also become taller in their puberty years. Moreover, environment also plays a major role in one’s physical development. Environment encompasses family surroundings, media influences, culture and so on. For instance, one of the Asian countries requires girls to wear metal bands around their necks from early age so that when they get into the puberty years, they can develop long and slender necks. This is so because it is considered beautiful in their culture for girls to have long and slender necks; it is a part of their culture. In addition, environmental and cultural factors such as television, internet, and media amongst others can play a major role to influence de velopment in adolescence. Adolescence is also a time of changes occurring in the development of cognition. Piaget developed a theory of cognitive development which emphasize on the four stages that children must go through. The four stages of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are as follows: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stage. Since the focus of this paper is adolescence, I would discuss the formal operational stage in depth as it is developed in ages of 11 and up. Formal Operational stage can be characterized by abstract thinking, logical thought and hypothetical reasoning. In Piaget’s Formal operational stage, the children acquire the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. In other words, children can ask themselves â€Å"what if† type of hypothetical questions, which further illustrates their ability to create and test concepts. In addition, Formal operational thinking also allows the adolescent to construct a well-reasoned argument based on hypothetical concepts and logical processes (Carpenter & Huffman, 2008). In addition to attaining the ability to think abstractly, children in this phase have very egocentric way of thinking. In other words, they cannot differentiate between what they are thinking and what others are thinking. This egocentric thought may be characterized into two ways: personal fable and imaginative audience. The factors that influence cognitive development in adolescents can be held responsible to both genetics and environmental influences. In terms of hereditary influences, if either of the two parents (biological) of the child is suffering from mental health disorder such as schizophrenia, then it is very likely that the offspring will also develop this disorder. Hence, this will in turn disrupt the development of cognitive processes such as formal operational stage in the child. Moreover, environment can also play a vital role in the cognitive development of an adolescent. For instance, if a child has grown up in a happy and a healthy environment where parents practice an authoritative parenting style then the child is more likely to reach the formal operational stage earlier and successfully in the adolescence years. Also, such an authoritative style of parenting facilitates good decision making in children. In other words, when given a choice between healthy and unhealthy behaviors such as having unprotected sex, driving experimenting with drugs and alcohol; these children are less likely to take such decisions and act on it. This is because they have  attained the formal operational stage and hence, gained the ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and logically about their decisions. Social development is studied by reflecting on the significance of attachment in ones life. Adolescent’s tend to develop strong attachments with people who are not their primary caregivers, particularly peers, teachers, social clubs, sports clubs and so on. Adolescence is a time when individuals tend to spend more time with peers than the primary caregivers. Not only that, adolescence is also a time when children group together to form cliques, intimate relationships and experiment with sexuality. The factor that affects social development is attachment. Vast amount of research has been done on the relationship between the type of attachment style formed in the younger years and the relationships formed later in the adolescent and adult life. Researchers found that an average, adolescents’ perceptions of the quality of the parent-child relationship declined consistently and moderately between age 11 and age 14. Furthermore, conflicts with parents increased and this was particularly true for girls than boys (McGue et. al, 2005). Morality can be explained as the ability to differentiate between right and wrong. Moral development also begins to develop in the adolescent years. Kohlberg, one of the most influential researchers in psychology has developed a model of moral development. His stages of development include Pre-conventional level, Conventional level and Post- conventional level. Since the focus of our paper is on adolescence, I will investigate conventional level in detail as it is developed in this age. Conventional level consist of stage 3 (good child orientation) and 4(law-and-order orientation). In Stage 3, the primary moral concern is with being nice and gaining approval. In stage 4, the individual takes into account a larger perspective-societal laws. Stage 4 individuals understand that if everyone violated laws, even with good intentions, there would be chaos. Thus, doing one’s duty and respecting law and order are highly valued (Carpenter, S. &  Huffman, K., 2008). Personality development is studied mainly with Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of development. Erikson’s theory consists of eight stages of psychosocial development; these theories are in the following order:Stage 1 – Trust vs. MistrustStage 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtStage 3 – Initiative vs. GuiltStage 4 – Industry vs. InferiorityStage 5 – Identity vs. Confusion (Adolescence: ages 12-20)Stage 6 – Intimacy vs. IsolationStage 7 – Generativity vs. StagnationStage 8 – Integrity vs. DespairThe stage 5 of Erikson’s theory reflects the adolescence period. Erikson claims that during this period, the individual questions and searches for their own identity and their role in society. Furthermore, he mentioned that those individuals who do not overcome the identity crisis do not form a stable identity, indulge into delinquent acts and behaviors, and have difficulty in forming and maintaining close relationships in life. Klimstra et. al (2009) examined adolescent personality maturation on the Big Five personality trait model and found that agreeableness and Emotional Stability increased during adolescence. In addition, mixed evidence was found for the increase in traits such as Extraversion and Openness. Furthermore, it was found that in terms of gender differences in the timing of adolescent personality maturation, girls tend to mature earlier than boys. Adolescence is a stage of development which occurs before adulthood and after childhood. In this stage of development, a drastic growth spurts in height, weight, and skeletal muscles. This paper mainly focused on the various aspects of the human development in adolescence. The various factors affecting physical, cognitive, social, moral, and personality development of adolescents were also discussed in this paper. References Carpenter, S. & Huffman, K. (2008). Visualizing Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Klimstra, T., Hale, W., Raaijmakers, Q., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2009, April). Maturation of personality in adolescence.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 898-912. Retrieved April 19, 2009, doi:10.1037/a0014746McGue, M., Elkins, I., Walden, B., & Iacono, W. (2005, November). Perceptions of the Parent-Adolescent Relationship: A Longitudinal Investigation. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 971-984. Retrieved April 19, 2009, doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.971